Breast cancer

Breast cancer

Written by Mr Michael J Dixon, consultant surgeon

What is breast cancer? The breast is a gland that consists of breast tissue supported by connective tissue (flesh) surrounded by fat. The easiest way to understand how the inside of the breast is formed is by comparing it to an upturned bush. Its leaves are known as lobules and they produce milk that drains into ducts that are the branches of the breast tree. These in turn drain into 12 or 15 major or large ducts which empty onto the surface of the nipple, just like the branches of a tree drain to the trunk. Breast cancer develops from the cells that line the breast, lobules and the draining ducts. Cancer cells that remain confined to the lobule and the ducts are called 'in situ' or 'non-invasive'. They are sometimes also referred to as pre-cancers in recognition of the fact that these cells have not yet gained the ability to spread to other parts of the body, which is the feature that most people associate with cancer. An invasive cancer is one where the cells have moved outside the ducts and lobules into the surrounding breast tissue. How common is breast cancer? Breast cancer is the most prevalent cancer among women and affects approximately one million women worldwide. Breast cancer accounts for 30 per cent of all female cancers in the UK and approximately 1 in 9 women in the UK will get breast cancer sometime during their life. Men can also develop breast cancer, accounting for 1% of cases diagnosed annually in the UK – around 250 men are diagnosed every year in the UK. What are the risk factors leading to the development of breast cancer? Age The incidence of breast cancer increases with age and doubles every 10 years until the menopause when the rate of increase slows. Approximately a quarter of breast cancers affect women under the age of 50, a half occur between the ages of 50 and 69 and the remaining quarter develop in women who are 70 years or older. Geographical variation There is quite a difference in incidence and death rate of breast cancer between different countries. The biggest difference is between Eastern and Western countries. Recent, age-adjusted figures show that the rate of breast cancer per 100,000 women is 24.3 in Japan and 26.5 in China compared to 68.8 in England and Wales and 72.7 in Scotland and 90.7 in North America in white females. However, studies of women from Japan who emigrate to the US show that their rates of breast cancer rise to become similar to US rates within just one or two generations, indicating that factors relating to everyday activities are more important than inherited factors in breast cancer. Reproductive factors Women who start menstruating early in life or who have a late menopause have an increased risk of breast cancer. Women who have natural menopause after the age of 55 are twice as likely to develop breast cancer as women who experience the menopause before the age of 45. Age at first pregnancy Having no children and being older at the time of the first birth both increase the lifetime incidence of breast cancer. The risk of breast cancer in women who have their first child after the age of 30 is about twice that of women having their first child before the age of 20. The highest risk group are those who have their first child after the age of 35 and these women have an even higher risk than women who have no children. These observations indicate a ‘menstrual cycle effect’. During the monthly cycle a woman’s fluctuating hormone levels cause several changes within breast tissue, which are repeated every month. These changes possibly encourage or amplify abnormalities in the cell repair processes within breast tissue, which can in some cases lead to breast cancer later in life. Women who have fewer menstrual cycles before their first pregnancy, either through being older when they start menstruating or younger when they first get pregnant, run less chance of such an abnormality occurring. Inherited risk Up to 10 per cent of breast cancer in Western countries is due to an inherited factor. This factor can be passed on from either parent and some family members pass on the abnormal gene without developing cancer themselves. It is not yet known how many breast cancer genes there are, but to date, two specific breast cancer genes have been identified (BRCA1 and BRCA2). Previous breast disease Women with certain benign (non-cancerous) changes in their breasts are at increased risk of breast cancer. These women present with a breast lump, have an operation and the breast tissue removed shows severe overgrowth of the cells lining the breast lobule. The technical name for this type of breast condition is ‘severe atypical epithelial hyperplasia’. Although benign in itself, its occurrence in a particular woman multiplies her risk of developing breast cancer during her life by a factor of four. Radiation Doubling of the risk of breast cancer was observed among teenage girls exposed to radiation during the Second World War. Another study of women who received radiation to the chest as a result of repeated X-rays for tuberculosis, found that there was a risk among women who were first X-rayed between the ages of 10 and 14 years. Fortunately, as tuberculosis itself has been prevented, this risk is less relevant today. Other studies have shown that women with Hodgkin's disease who received radiation therapy to the chest have an excess risk of breast cancer. As they are surviving to older age they are now developing not only unilateral but bilateral breast cancer. The increase in risk depends on the dose and the age at which they received radiation. Data has also suggested that there is increased risk of breast cancer in the other breast in patients having radiation to one breast. Lifestyle Although there is a close correlation between the incidence of breast cancer in a country and the dietary fat intake of that country, more detailed studies have shown that there does not appear to be a particularly strong or consistent relationship between fat intake in any individual and their risk of developing breast cancer. Weight Being overweight is associated with a doubling of the risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women whereas amongst premenopausal women obesity is associated with reduced breast cancer incidence. Alcohol intake Some studies have shown a link between the amount of alcohol people drink and the incidence of breast cancer, but this relationship is not consistent and may be influenced by dietary factors other than alcohol. Hormones Women who take the contraceptive pill are at a slight increased risk while they take the Pill and they remain at risk for 10 years after coming of the Pill. The increased risk is, however, very small and cancers diagnosed in women taking the oral contraceptive Pill are less likely to have spread than those cancers diagnosed in women who have never used the oral contraceptive. The duration of use, age at first use, dose and type of hormone within the contraceptive appears to have no significant effect on breast cancer risk. Women who begin taking the Pill before the age of 20 appear to have a higher risk than women who begin taking oral contraceptives at an older age. Hormone replacement therapy Among current users of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and those who have stopped using it one to four years previously, there is an increased risk of breast cancer. The risk increases 1.023 times for each year of HRT use. This increased risk is very similar to the effect of a delay in the menopause by one year. The risk of breast cancer in a woman who has not used HRT increases 1.028 times for each year she is older at the menopause. HRT using a combination of oestrogen and progestogen has been shown to be associated with a slightly higher risk of breast cancer than oestrogen-only HRT. Cancers diagnosed in women taking HRT tend to be less advanced clinically than those diagnosed in women who have not used HRT. Current evidence suggests that HRT does not increase breast cancer mortality. What are the symptoms of breast cancer? Generally, breast cancers are not painful and women do not feel unwell with them. Breast cancer is now commonly diagnosed by breast screening in women who have no symptoms. Approximately 6 in every 1000 women between the ages of 50 and 64 who attend for screening will be found to have breast cancer the first time they attend screening. A lump in the breast. In many cases, the woman herself will first suspect the disease because she notices a lump or an area of lumpiness or irregularity in her breast tissue. This may happen when she is examining her breasts or while washing or applying lotion to her breasts, or the lump may be visible. Other signs of breast cancer include: a change in the skin: there is often dimpling or indentation of the skin with the formation of wrinkles. The nipple might be pulled in or there may be a discharge from the nipple. occasionally the nipple itself changes. A rash can affect the nipple or the nipple may weep. the breast may swell and become red and inflamed or the skin may change and become like the skin of an orange. In some breast cancers this is due to a blockage of the drainage of fluid from the breast. patients sometimes present with a lump under the arm which is a sign that the cancer has spread to the lymph glands. How is breast cancer diagnosed? If a woman has any breast symptoms it is very important that she consult her doctor so that the cause of these symptoms can be found. If breast cancer is found at an early stage this improves the chances of recovery. As a rule, the doctor will ask her a number of questions. Does the lump vary in relation to her menstrual cycle? What previous breast problems has she had? Is there any breast cancer in her family? How many children has she had? Physical examination The doctor will look at her breasts, first with her arms by her sides, then above her head and, finally, with her arms pressing on her hips. By looking carefully at the outline of the breast in various positions, the doctor can often see changes in the outline of the breast, which will help identify the site and cause of any problems. Next, her breasts are examined while she is lying flat with her arms folded under her head. If, during this examination, the doctor finds a lump, he or she will concentrate on this area examining with the fingertips and measuring the lump. After checking her breasts, the doctor usually carefully examines the lymph glands under the patient's arm pit and those in the lower part of her neck. Should the patient need any further investigations, the breast specialist in the breast clinic will organise any tests that are necessary. Mammograms If the patient is over 35 and has not had a breast X-ray within the past year, the doctor may arrange for one to be performed. Breast X-rays are known as mammograms. Mammograms are a good way of identifying abnormalities in the breast, but they don't always tell whether they are benign or malignant. Further tests are sometimes necessary and these tests include ultrasound and fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC). Ultrasound scanning X-rays do not pass easily through the breasts of young women. Ultrasound scanning, which is familiar to many women by its use to look at babies during pregnancy, can also be used in the breast to tell whether a lump is fluid or solid. Ultrasound is not useful as a screening test. It is useful if an abnormal shadow is seen on the mammogram because ultrasound is an accurate way of judging whether any abnormality is benign and straightforward or whether it is more likely to be serious. Needle tests (FNAC) Inserting a needle into the lump will show whether it is full of fluid (a cyst) or solid. The needle can allow a sample of cells to be removed for examination under the microscope (a process called cytology) and this is a very accurate method of finding out whether the lump is benign or malignant. If there is an abnormality on the mammogram, but no lump to feel, then using either the X-ray machine or the ultrasound machine, it is possible to guide the needle into the area of abnormality and to obtain enough cells or tissue to obtain a definite diagnosis. The very fine needles used for this procedure give rise to its name. Having the lump removed After investigation, the doctor may decide the lump is benign and that it can be left alone. Alternatively the doctor may suggest that the lump should be removed. This is called an excision biopsy and it can be performed either while the patient is awake under local anaesthesia or, more commonly, under a general anaesthetic. Before any operation, the patient will be asked to sign a consent form agreeing to the removal of the lump. It is important for the patient to know that the doctor performing the operation will only remove the lump and will not take any more tissue away without explaining any further procedure to the patient first and being given her consent. What are the types of breast cancer? Breast cancer was originally described according to its appearances, so words like scirrhous (meaning woody) were used and still appear in the literature. More recently, breast cancer has been classified according to its appearances when under the microscope. Early pathologists classified breast cancers into 'invasive ductal' cancers and 'invasive lobular' cancers, believing that invasive ductal cancers arose in ducts and invasive lobular cancers in the lobules. However, it is now clear that all invasive ductal and invasive lobular cancers arise either in the terminal duct or the lobule. As the terms invasive ductal and lobular are in such common usage and as they have different appearances under the microscope they are still used. A more logical classification divides tumours into those of 'special' and 'no special' type. Invasive carcinoma of no special type is also commonly referred to as invasive ductal carcinoma. It is the most common type and accounts for up to 85 per cent of all breast cancers. Special types of tumour have particular microscopic features and these include invasive lobular carcinoma, invasive tubular, cribriform, medullary and mucinous cancers, with other types being uncommon. Many of the special-type cancers have a better prognosis - in other words the patient has a higher chance of survival. When a cancer is examined under the microscope, it is usually possible to assess how aggressive it is: in other words how far and how fast it is likely to spread. The tumour may be assigned to one of three grades ranging from grade I to grade III in order of seriousness. For instance, a grade I cancer is non-aggressive and unlikely to cause harm. In contrast, grade III tumours are aggressive and likely to cause harm, but can sometimes be controlled with effective treatment. How is breast cancer treated? The treatment of the disease depends on the tumour type and the stage of disease - how far it has spread to involve either lymph glands or other organs in the body. There are various ways a cancer can be staged and classified. A simple way of staging or classifying breast cancer is to divide it into three groups. Early or operable breast cancer This describes cancer that is confined to the breast and/or the lymph glands in the axilla (arm pit) on the same side of the body. Locally advanced breast cancer This has not apparently spread beyond the breast and axillary lymph glands but involves the skin or the chest wall of the breast. These cancers tend to have a worse outlook than early breast cancer and are usually best initially treated by drug therapy or radiotherapy rather than surgery. In locally advanced breast cancer the skin of the breast can either be directly involved by cancer or it is swollen or red. These changes occur because cancer cells get into the fluid channels that drain the breast (lymphatics) and block them, which causes the skin of the breast to be swollen and look like the skin of an orange (peau d'orange). Locally advanced breast cancers were initially treated with surgery but this treatment was successful in only about 30 per cent of patients. In the remainder, the cancer recurred in the areas immediately next to where the surgery was performed. Advanced breast cancer This is where the cancer has spread beyond the breast and arm pit to other parts or organs of the body such as lymph glands in the neck, bone, lungs, liver and brain. Other tumours in the breast A rare form of tumour in the breast arises from the supporting tissue and is called a sarcoma. These types of tumour are rare and account for much less than one per cent of all malignant tumours within the breast. These are usually best treated by surgery. How does breast cancer develop? Initially, carcinoma cells are confined within the lobule and adjacent ducts. These are known as non-invasive cancers or 'carcinoma in situ'. As with invasive disease, there are two main types - ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) and lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS). Under the microscope these look different and, clinically, these two types of non-invasive cancer behave differently and require different treatments. Certain types of DCIS develop characteristic tiny particles of calcium within them. These particles show up as tiny white dots on a mammogram. DCIS is much more common than LCIS. DCIS accounts for over one fifth of all types of cancer detected by breast screening. DCIS is treated by surgery which may be followed by radiotherapy and hormonal treatment. LCIS when diagnosed is usually treated by simple follow up with regular mammograms or with hormonal tablets. Only rarely is surgery used for LCIS. DCIS is considered to be a pre-malignant breast disease. It is not early breast cancer, but if left untreated DCIS cells eventually spread into the surrounding connective tissue of the breast to form an invasive cancer. The time period in which DCIS changes into an invasive cancer appears to be over months and years rather than days or weeks. When an invasive cancer has developed, it is at this stage that there is a risk that cancer cells can spread to nearby lymph glands, the most common lymph glands affected being in the axillary (armpit) region. Cancer cells can also enter the blood stream through the blood vessels that supply the cancer and then move to other organs of the body where they grow and cause problems in these organs. The most common sites for breast cancer to spread to are the bones, lungs, liver and brain. Sarcomas if they spread do so mainly through the bloodstream. Can breast cancer be prevented? One particular medicine used to treat breast cancer, tamoxifen (eg Nolvadex D), has been shown in an American study to reduce the risk of developing breast cancer by approximately 50 per cent in women at high risk of developing the disease. Research with tamoxifen and some other breast cancer medicines is still being carried out to determine if these are suitable options for preventing breast cancer. However, tamoxifen is associated with some rare but serious side effects that may make it unsuitable as a preventive measure. Screening, as currently practised, can reduce the mortality but not the incidence of breast cancer (and then only in the age group that is screened). Breast screening Once a woman reaches the age of 50, she will be invited to take part in a breast screening programme. In the UK, this means having a mammogram every three years up to the age of 64, although the upper age limit of routine screening is currently being extended to 70 years throughout the UK.. The aim of screening by mammography is to pick up cancer while it is still small before it has a chance to spread. There are various reasons why women are not normally screened below the age of 50: breast cancer is less common in younger women. mammography is less likely to detect breast cancer in young women because the breast tissue is denser which can make breast cancer much more difficult to detect. there is no evidence that breast screening below the age of 50 is cost effective. How is breast cancer treated with surgery and radiotherapy? Early breast cancer can be treated by a combination of local treatments to control the local disease and adjuvent treatments to kill any cells which may have spread. Local treatments consist of surgery and radiotherapy. Surgery Surgery can be an excision of the tumour with surrounding normal breast tissue (breast conservation) or removal of the whole breast (mastectomy). Clinical trials comparing mastectomy and breast conservation have shown that the two produce identical results. If the lump is relatively small it is usually possible for the surgeon to remove it along with a small amount of surrounding normal tissue. This is called lumpectomy, wide local excision or breast-conserving surgery. With a larger lump, this breast-conserving operation may not be possible because so much of the breast tissue would have been taken away that it would badly distort the breast. Once the lump and surrounding tissue is removed it needs to be examined under the microscope. In some women, the surrounding tissue is abnormal and a further operation is necessary. A mastectomy (removal of the whole breast) may be necessary if: the cancer is too large to remove and leave a reasonable looking breast after surgery. there is more than one lump in the breast. the cancer is directly underneath the nipple. the patient has previously had a lumpectomy or wide excision and the tissue round the cancer is abnormal. As well as removing the lump or breast, the surgeon will also usually remove some or all axillary lymph glands, which are found under the arm. There are about 20 of these lymph glands and they are the most common place for cancer to spread. Knowing whether this has happened and, if so, how many glands are affected is important in both assessing the severity of the cancer and deciding on follow up treatment. If the surgeon needs to check whether the cancer has spread to these glands, then removing either a single gland which drains the cancer or a few of these glands is all that is needed. If, however, the surgeon wants to find out exactly how many lymph glands are affected, then it is necessary to remove all 20 lymph nodes from the axilla. If it has been decided to treat the patient by mastectomy, the surgeon will probably discuss with her the possibility of having her breast rebuilt at the same time. The results of breast rebuilding or reconstruction are usually more successful if this is performed straight away rather than left until many months or years later. There is no evidence that immediate breast reconstruction makes any recurrence of the cancer more likely. If the cancer does return, reconstruction does not make it harder to detect. Radiotherapy Studies have shown that all patients treated by breast conserving surgery (lumpectomy or wide excision), should receive radiotherapy to the breast following surgery. This is given every day, Monday to Friday, over three to five weeks. After mastectomy, radiotherapy is given to patients who are considered to be at risk of recurrence. Radiotherapy kills cells that are growing and has greater effects on cancer than on surrounding tissue. After a few days of radiotherapy, the patient's skin may look red and feel a bit sore, rather like they have spent too long in the sun. Towards the end of treatment, there may also be some blistering of the skin. The radiotherapy staff will give all the necessary advice about how to look after the treated skin. How is breast cancer treated with medicines? Medicines act on cancer cells, including those which have spread. We know that in some women there are small numbers of cancer cells that have spread beyond the breast but cannot be detected by scans. Medicines can kill these cells or prevent them from growing for many months and years after surgery with or without radiotherapy. This is called adjuvant treatment. In some patients with larger but operable breast cancers, the medicines can be used before surgery to shrink the cancer. This allows some women who would initially have required a mastectomy to be treated by less extensive surgery. If the cancer has already spread at the time it is first diagnosed or a patient who is treated for early breast cancer develops a recurrence of the cancer at some other site in the body, then the only practical way of treating these two groups of patients is by medicines. The medicines for treating breast cancer fall into two groups: hormones and chemotherapy. Whether the patient receives hormone therapy or chemotherapy will depend on the size of the tumour, type of tumour (including the grade) and whether the tumour has spread to involve the lymph glands. Hormones Most breast cancer is sensitive to the female hormone oestrogen. Sensitive cancer cells need oestrogen to stay alive and removal of oestrogen from the body or stopping any circulating oestrogen getting to the cancer cells is very effective at controlling or killing hormone-sensitive breast cancers. It is possible to determine whether a tumour is sensitive to hormones by performing a chemical test on the tumour. Tumours can be classified into oestrogen-sensitive and oestrogen-insensitive tumours. In premenopausal women who are still having regular menstrual periods, about half of all breast cancers are hormone sensitive. Over two thirds of tumours in postmenopausal women whose periods have stopped are oestrogen sensitive. The most commonly used medicine against oestrogen sensitive tumours is tamoxifen (eg Nolvadex D). This medicine is an anti-oestrogen in its effect on breast cancers and works by stopping oestrogen getting to the cancer cells. It appears to be a very safe medicine but can cause side effects which can be distressing and these include flushing (similar to those women experience during the menopause), vaginal dryness and vaginal discharge. Many women complain of weight gain on tamoxifen, but, in randomised studies, women taking tamoxifen put on a similar amount of weight to those women who were not receiving drug treatment. There is an increased incidence of eye problems and disturbance of vision. This is reversible if the medicine is stopped. The most serious possible side effects of tamoxifen are that it can slightly increase the incidence of cancer of the lining of the womb, and slightly increase the risk of a blood clot in the leg (deep vein thrombosis). However the risks of both these side effects are very low. Tamoxifen has been widely used throughout the world and is a very safe medicine for pre and postmenopausal women. Few women have to stop the medicine because of side effects. Women who have had surgery for early breast cancer are commonly given tamoxifen following the surgery to reduce the risk of recurrence of the cancer. The production of oestrogen in postmenopausal women requires an enzyme called aromatase. A new class of medicines for treating breast cancers blocks this aromatase enzyme. These medicines are called aromatase inhibitors and include letrozole (Femara), anastrazole (Arimidex) and exemestane (Aromasin). They are very effective in postmenopausal women with oestrogen sensitive tumours. The side effects include flushings, nausea and lack of appetite. Occasionally, women have to stop the medicine because of the constant feeling of sickness. In premenopausal women the major source of oestrogen is the ovaries. Either removing the ovaries or using an injectable medicine called goserelin (Zoladex), which stops the ovaries from producing oestrogen are effective treatments in hormone sensitive breast cancer. The medicine that stops the ovaries working has to be injected once a month. Side effects of this type of medicine or removal of the ovaries include the rapid onset of menopausal symptoms. Chemotherapy Chemotherapy involves being given a combination of anti-cancer medicines, often up to three at a time. The prime target for such medicines is cancer cells that are actively growing and dividing. Unfortunately, anticancer medicines are not able to recognise cancer cells specifically and they also kill normally dividing cells such as the blood and hair cells. The art of the science behind successful cancer chemotherapy is combining medicines which are chosen to minimise the damage to blood cells while maximising damage to cancer cells. Chemotherapy may be preferable for more advanced cancer that is not hormone responsive and for aggressive disease, particularly if the cancer has spread to other sites, such as the liver. It is sometimes administered prior to surgery in order to shrink a tumour. As outlined above, this sometimes means that the surgeon is able to perform less extensive surgery in patients whose cancers respond. Cancer chemotherapy is usually given through an intravenous drip in the hand or arm on an outpatient basis. Treatments vary but each session usually lasts between one and two hours and is repeated every three weeks. Patients may be frightened because they have heard about very unpleasant side-effects such as nausea, vomiting and hair loss. In fact, by no means everyone will experience all or even any of these problems. Some of the anti-cancer drugs that are in common use cause little or no hair thinning and anti-sickness medicine given with the chemotherapy works well. A common complaint in people receiving chemotherapy is of weight gain. This is due to the anti-sickness pills which are taken after the chemotherapy. Once the chemotherapy is finished, providing the patient remains active, they should return to their initial weight. One of the less well-known side effects of chemotherapy is to cause premature menopause. This means that periods are likely to stop at a much earlier age if you have had this type of treatment. Bringing forward the menopause is particularly likely to occur in women in their late 30s and 40s, but even younger women can find that their periods temporarily stop during chemotherapy. Treatment for locally advanced breast cancer Some patients whose cancer is locally advanced because it has grown directly into the skin overlying the breast are suitable for surgery and are treated in an identical way to patients with early or operable breast cancer. The majority of patients with locally advanced breast cancer are treated with drug therapy followed by surgery and/or radiotherapy. Some patients with locally advanced breast cancer are treated by radiotherapy initially which can be followed by drug therapy and/or surgery. Drug therapy can consist of either hormonal therapy in slower growing hormone-sensitive cancers or chemotherapy in hormone-sensitive or more rapidly growing cancers. Outlook for patients with operable or early breast cancer There are various factors which relate to survival in breast cancer. These include: tumour size - the smaller the tumour the more likely a patient is to survive. spread to axillary lymph nodes - the single best factor which predicts a person's survival is the presence or absence of cancer cells in the lymph glands. The more lymph glands which are affected, the worse is the outcome. the tumour type. the grade (whether it is a grade I which has a good prognosis or a grade III which has a poorer prognosis). whether tumour cells are seen by the pathologist in lymph channels or blood vessels. whether the tumour is slow growing or fast growing. whether it expresses hormone receptors. the genetic abnormalities in the cancer. Outlook for patients with locally advanced breast cancer The outlook is worse than for patients who present with operable breast cancer. Local recurrence of the disease after treatment is a problem even in patients who have had drug treatment, surgery and radiotherapy. Control rates of disease are however much better than they used to be when surgery was the initial treatment. The outlook is better in patients who have a good response to their initial drug treatment. In approximately 10 per cent of patients who receive chemotherapy, the drug treatment is so effective than when surgery is performed, no breast cancer cells can be identified in the breast or the lymph glands. Outlook for patients with metastatic breast cancer Metastasis is the process of further spread of the cancer within the body, away from the site at which the cancer starts. People whose cancers have already spread have a much worse outlook than those whose disease is apparently localised. There are differences in survival, depending on the site affected.

References 1. Baum, M. The changing face of breast cancer- past, present and future perspectives. Breast Cancer Research and Treatment 2002;75:S1-S5. 2. Beral V, et al. Breast cancer and hormone replacement therapy in the Million Women Study. Lancet 2003;362:419-427. 3. British Medical Journal: collected resources on breast cancer: http://bmj.com/cgi/collection/cancer%3Abreast National Institute for Clinical Excellence. Breast cancer service guidance. http://www.nice.org.uk/cat.asp?c=36017.

Last updated 04.07.2008

The large bowel (colon and rectum)

The bowel is part of our digestive system. It is divided into two parts, the small bowel and the large bowel. The large bowel is made up of the colon and rectum.

Once food has been swallowed, it passes down the gullet (oesophagus) to the stomach, where digestion begins. It then passes through the small bowel, where essential nutrients are taken into the body. The digested food then moves into the large bowel, and water is absorbed by the colon. The colon starts at the bottom, right-hand side of the abdomen. The first part goes up and is known as the ascending colon. It then goes across to the left side of the abdomen. This part is called the transverse colon. It then goes down to the bottom of the abdomen: this part is called the descending colon, and ends in the sigmoid colon, rectum and anus.

The remaining waste matter, known as stools or faeces, is held in the rectum (back passage) until it is ready to be passed from the body through the anus as a bowel motion (stool). Close to the bowel are lymph nodes, also known as lymph glands, which are about the size of a baked bean. The lymph nodes are part of the lymphatic system.

Nearly all bowel cancers develop in the large bowel – two-thirds of these are in the colon and one-third in the rectum.

You can find information about cancer of the small bowel later in this section.

Types of primary bone cancer

Primary bone cancer is a very rare type of cancer and fewer than 500 people are diagnosed with it in the UK each year. There are several different types of primary bone cancer and all of them are rare. If your cancer is not one of those described below, our nurses can give you information about it.

Osteosarcoma (also called osteogenic sarcoma)

This is the commonest type of primary bone cancer. In the UK, nearly a third of all primary bone cancers are osteosarcomas – approximately 150 people are diagnosed each year. Although it can occur at any age, osteosarcoma is most commonly found in teenagers and young adults, and is slightly more common in males. Any bone in the body can be affected but the most common sites are the upper arms (humerus), or the legs, particularly the lower thigh (femur) and the upper shin bone (tibia).

Ewing's sarcoma

Ewing's sarcoma is named after the surgeon who first described it. Again, this type of bone cancer is more common in young people than adults. Any bone can be affected, but the pelvis, thigh bone (femur) and the shin bone (tibia) are the most common places for it to occur. Like osteosarcoma, Ewing’s sarcoma is slightly more common in males than females. It is also possible to get a Ewing’s sarcoma in the soft tissues of the body. This is known as extraosseous Ewing’s sarcoma.

Chondrosarcoma

This is a cancer that starts in cartilage cells although it can also grow within a bone or on its surface. It is most commonly found in middle-aged adults. Chondrosarcoma is usually a slow-growing tumour. The most common sites are the pelvis, shoulder blade (scapula), ribs and the upper part of the arms (humerus) and legs (femur).

Spindle cell sarcoma

There are four types of spindle cell sarcoma: malignant fibrous histiocytoma, fibrosarcoma, leiomyosarcoma, and undifferentiated sarcoma of the bone.

• Malignant fibrous histiocytoma This is a very rare type of bone cancer that occurs in middle-aged adults. It is usually found in the arms or legs, especially around the knee joint.
• Fibrosarcoma This type of bone cancer, which again is very rare, is also most often found in adults, particularly during middle age. The most common site is the thigh bone (femur).
• Leiomyosarcoma Leiomyosarcoma of the bone is very rare. It can occur in people of any age, but is extremely rare in people under 20 years of age. It occurs slightly more often in men than women, and is more common in the long bones of the body, such as the thigh bone (femur), shin bones (tibia) and bone of the upper arm (humerus).
• Undifferentiated sarcoma of the bone These tumours are made up of primitive cells and it isn’t possible to tell what type of normal bone cell they develop from.

Chordoma

This is an extremely rare cancer which starts in the bones of the spine, either in the sacrum (the bottom of the spine) or the neck. Chordomas are more common in men, and can occur at any age, although they are more common in people in their 40s and 50s. They tend to be slow-growing tumours.

Angiosarcoma

This is a rare type of primary bone cancer that occurs more commonly in men. It can occur in people of any age, but is very rare in people under 20 years of age. Angiosarcomas can affect any bone in the skeleton. They can affect more than one bone at the same time, or develop in more than one place in a single bone.

The bladder

The bladder is a hollow, muscular, balloon-like organ that collects and stores urine. It is in the lower part of the abdomen (the pelvis).

The position of the bladder

The inside of the bladder is covered with a urine-proof lining (called the urothelium) which stops urine being absorbed back into the body. The cells of this lining are called transitional cells or urothelial cells.

Our kidneys (most people have two) produce urine, which is carried to the bladder by thin tubes called ureters. The bladder stores the urine which is made up of water and waste products that the body does not need. When the bladder is full enough, nerve signals are sent to the brain. To get rid of the urine, the muscle of the bladder contracts, forcing the urine out of the body through another fine tube called the urethra.

In women the urethra is a short tube which lies in front of the vagina. In men the urethra is longer as it passes through the prostate gland and to the tip of the penis.

Bile duct cancer (cholangiocarcinoma)

• Bile duct cancer
• Causes and risk factors
• Signs and symptoms
• How it is diagnosed
• Laparotomy
• Staging and grading
• Treatment overview
• Surgery
• Stent insertion
• Other treatments
• Clinical trials
• Your feelings
• References

Bile duct cancer

Cancers of the bile duct are rare in the Western world. There are approximately 600 people diagnosed with cholangiocarcinomas each year in the UK.

The bile ducts are the tubes connecting the liver and gall bladder to the small intestine (small bowel). Bile is a fluid made by the liver and stored in the gall bladder. Its main function is to break down fats during their digestion in the small bowel. In people who have had their gall bladder removed, bile flows directly into the small intestine. The bile ducts and gall bladder are known as the biliary system.

Diagram showing the position of the bile duct

Cancer is classified according to the type of cell from which it starts. Cancer of the biliary system almost always starts in a type of tissue called glandular tissue and is then known as adenocarcinoma.

If the cancer starts in the part of the bile ducts contained within the liver it is known as intra-hepatic. If it starts in the area of the bile ducts outside the liver it is known as extra-hepatic. This information concentrates mainly on extra-hepatic bile duct cancers. Intra-hepatic bile duct cancers may be treated like primary liver cancer.

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Causes and risk factors

The cause of most bile duct cancers is unknown. There are a number of risk factors that can increase your risk of developing bile duct cancer. These are:

Inflammatory bowel disease People who have a chronic inflammatory bowel condition, known as ulcerative colitis, are at an increased risk of developing this type of cancer.

Abnormal bile ducts People who are born with (congenital) abnormalities of the bile ducts, such as choledochal cysts, are more at risk of developing cholangiocarcinoma.

Infection In Africa and Asia, infection with a parasite known as the liver fluke is thought to cause a large number of bile duct cancers.

Bile duct cancer, like other cancers, is not infectious and cannot be passed on to other people.

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Signs and symptoms

If cancer develops in the bile ducts it may block the flow of bile from the liver to the intestine. This causes the bile to flow back into the blood and body tissues, and leads to the skin and whites of the eyes becoming yellow (known as jaundice). The urine also becomes a dark yellow colour and stools (bowel motions) are pale. The skin may become itchy. Mild discomfort in the abdomen, loss of appetite, high temperatures (fevers) and weight loss may also occur.

These symptoms can be caused by many things other than bile duct cancer, but any jaundice or any symptoms which get worse or last for a few weeks should always be checked by your doctor.

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How it is diagnosed

Usually you begin by seeing your GP, who will examine you. They will refer you to a hospital specialist for any tests that may be necessary and for expert advice and treatment.

At the hospital the doctor will ask you about your general health and any previous medical problems. They will also examine you and take blood samples to check your general health and that your liver is working properly.

The following tests are commonly used to diagnose bile duct cancer:

Ultrasound scan Sound waves are used to make up a picture of the bile ducts and surrounding organs. These scans are done in the hospital's scanning department. You will be asked not to eat, and to drink clear fluids only (nothing fizzy or milky) for four to six hours before the scan. Once you are lying comfortably on your back, a gel is spread onto your abdomen. A small device, like a microphone, is then rubbed over the area. The sound waves are converted into a picture using a computer. The test is completely painless and takes 15–20 minutes.

CT (computerised tomography) scan A CT scan takes a series of x-rays which are fed into a computer to build up a detailed picture of your bile ducts and surrounding organs. On the day of the scan you will be asked not to eat or drink anything for at least four hours before your appointment. You will be given a special liquid to drink an hour before the test and again immediately before the scan. The liquid shows up on x-ray to ensure that a clear picture is obtained.

Once you are comfortably positioned on your back on the couch, the scan can be taken. About half-way through the scan a special dye will be injected into the vein to show up the blood vessels. This may make you feel warm or 'flushed' for up to half an hour. The test itself is completely painless, but it will mean that you have to lie still for about 10–30 minutes. If you had little to drink before the scan, you may be advised to drink plenty afterwards to make up for this.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scan This test is similar to a CT scan, but uses magnetism instead of x-rays to build up cross-sectional pictures of your body. During the test you will be asked to lie very still on a couch inside a large metal cylinder which is open at both ends. The whole test may take up to an hour. It can be slightly uncomfortable and some people feel a bit claustrophobic during the scan, which is also very noisy. You will be given earplugs or headphones to wear. A two-way intercom enables you to talk with the people controlling the scanner.

ERCP (endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography) This is a procedure by which an x-ray picture of the pancreatic duct and of the bile duct can be taken. It may also be used to unblock the bile duct if necessary.

You will be asked not to eat or drink anything for about six hours before the test so that the stomach and duodenum (first part of the small bowel) are empty. You will be given an injection to make you relax (a sedative) and a local anaesthetic spray will be used to numb your throat. The doctor will then pass a thin flexible tube known as an endoscope through your mouth into your stomach and into the duodenum just beyond it. Looking down the endoscope, the doctor can find the opening through which the bile duct and the duct of the pancreas drain into the duodenum. A dye which can be seen on x-ray can be injected into these ducts and the doctor will be able to see whether there is any abnormality or any blockage in the ducts.

If there is a blockage it may be possible or the doctor to insert a small tube known as stent. You may have some discomfort during this procedure; if you do, it is important that you let your doctor know. You will be given antibiotics beforehand (to help prevent any infection) and will probably stay in hospital for one night afterwards.

PTC (percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography) This is another procedure by which your doctor can obtain an x-ray picture of the bile duct. You will be asked not to eat or drink anything for about six hours before the test and will be given a sedative as for the ECRP.

An area on the right side of your abdomen will be numbed with a local anaesthetic (an injection) and a thin needle will be passed into the liver through the skin. A dye will be injected through the needle into the bile duct within the liver. X-rays will then be taken to see if there is any abnormality or blockage of the duct.

You may feel some discomfort as the needle enters the liver. You will be given antibiotics before and after this procedure (to help prevent infection) and you will stay in hospital for at least one night afterwards.

Angiography As the bile duct is very close to the major blood vessels of the liver, a test called an angiogram may be done. The angiogram can check whether the blood vessels are affected by the tumour.

A fine tube is inserted into an artery in your groin and a dye is injected through the tube. The dye circulates in the arteries to make them show up on x-ray. An angiogram is carried out in a room within the x-ray department. Sometimes an MRI scan can be used to show up the blood vessels of the liver and then an angiogram will not be necessary.

Biopsy The results of the previous tests may make your doctor strongly suspect a diagnosis of cancer of the bile duct, but the only way to be sure of the diagnosis is to take some cells or a small piece of tissue from the affected area of the bile duct to look at under a microscope. This is called a biopsy and may be carried out during an ECRP or PTC.

A fine needle is passed into the tumour through the skin after the area has been numbed using a local anaesthetic injection. CT or ultrasound may be used at the same time, to make sure that the biopsy is taken from the right place.

Endoscopic ultrasound scan (EUS) This scan is similar to an ERCP but involves an ultrasound probe being passed down the endoscope to take an ultrasound scan of the pancreas and surrounding structures.

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Laparotomy

If the doctor cannot make the diagnosis from the above tests, a procedure called a laparotomy may be done under a general anaesthetic. This involves making a cut (incision) into your abdomen so that the surgeon can examine the bile duct and the tissue around it for cancer. Sometimes this examination can be done through a tiny cut using a camera called a laparoscope – this procedure is known as keyhole surgery.

If a cancer is found, but looks as though it has not spread to surrounding tissues, the surgeon may be able to remove the cancer or relieve any blockage that it is causing.

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Staging and grading

Staging

The stage of a cancer is a term used to describe its size and whether it has
spread beyond its original site. Knowing the particular type and the stage of the cancer helps the doctors to decide on the most appropriate treatment.

Cancer can spread in the body, either in the blood stream or through the lymphatic system. The lymphatic system is part of the body’s defence against infection and disease. The system is made up of a network of lymph glands (also known as lymph nodes) that are linked by fine ducts containing lymph fluid. Your doctors will usually look at the lymph nodes close to the biliary system in order to find the stage of your cancer.

• Stage 1A The cancer is contained within the bile duct.
• Stage 1B The cancer has spread through the wall of the bile duct but has not spread into nearby lymph nodes or other structures.
• Stage 2A The cancer has spread into the liver, pancreas or gall bladder or to the nearby blood vessels, but not the lymph nodes.
• Stage 2B The cancer has spread into nearby lymph nodes.
• Stage 3 The cancer is affecting the main blood vessels that take blood to and from the liver, or it has spread into the small or large bowel, the stomach or the abdominal wall. Lymph nodes in the abdomen may also be affected.
• Stage 4 The cancer has spread to distant parts of the body such as the lungs.

If the cancer comes back after initial treatment, this is known as recurrent cancer.

Grading

Grading refers to the appearance of the cancer cells under the microscope and gives an idea of how quickly the cancer may develop. Low-grade means that the cancer cells look very like normal cells; they are usually slow-growing and are less likely to spread. In high-grade tumours the cells look very abnormal, are likely to grow more quickly and are more likely to spread.

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Treatment overview

The type of treatment that you are given will depend on a number of factors, including your general health, the position and size of the cancer in the bile duct and whether the cancer has spread beyond the bile duct.

Consent

Before you have any treatment, your doctor will give you full information about what it involves and explain the aims of the treatment to you. They will usually ask you to sign a form saying that you give permission (consent) for the hospital staff to give you the treatment. No medical treatment can be given without your consent.

Benefits and disadvantages of treatment

Treatment can be given for different reasons and the potential benefits will vary for each person. If you have been offered treatment that aims to cure your cancer, deciding whether to have the treatment may not be difficult. However, if a cure is not possible and the treatment is to control the cancer for a period of time, it may be more difficult to decide whether or not to go ahead.

If you feel that you can't make a decision about treatment when it is first explained to you, you can always ask for more time to decide.

You are free to choose not to have the treatment and the staff can explain what may happen if you don't have it. You don't have to give a reason for not wanting to have treatment, but it can be helpful to let the staff know your concerns so that they can give you the best advice.

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Surgery

Surgery may be used to remove the cancer if it has not spread beyond the bile duct. It is not always possible to carry out surgery, as the bile duct is in a difficult position and it may be impossible to remove the cancer completely. The decision about whether surgery is possible or not depends on the results of the tests described above. If surgery is recommended then you will be referred to a surgeon with a special interest in this rare cancer.

There are different operations depending upon how big the cancer is and whether it has begun to spread into nearby tissues.

Removal of the bile ducts If the cancer is small and contained within the ducts, then just the bile ducts containing the cancer are removed and the remaining ducts in the liver are joined to the small bowel, allowing the bile to flow again.

Partial liver resection If the cancer has begun to spread into the liver, the affected part of the liver is removed, along with the bile ducts.

Whipple's If the cancer is larger and has spread into nearby structures, then the bile ducts, part of the stomach, part of the duodenum (small bowel), the pancreas, gall bladder and the surrounding lymph nodes are all removed.

After your operation you may stay in an intensive-care ward for the first couple of days. You will then be moved to a general ward until you recover. Most people need to be in hospital for up to two weeks after this type of operation.

Bypass surgery Sometimes it isn't possible to remove the tumour and other procedures may be performed to relieve the blockage (obstruction) and allow the bile to go into the intestine. The jaundice will then clear up.

The surgical method of dealing with blockage of the bile duct involves joining the gall bladder (or the bile duct) to part of your small bowel. This bypasses the blocked part of the bile duct and allows the bile to flow from the liver into the intestine. This operation is called a cholecysto-jejunostomy or cholecysto-duodenostomy if the gall bladder is used. It is called a hepatico-jejunostomy if the bile duct is used.

Another type of operation may be necessary if the duodenum is also blocked. This is called a gastrojejunostomy and involves connecting a piece of the small bowel (the jejunum) to the stomach to bypass the duodenum. This will stop the persistent vomiting (being sick) that can occasionally happen if the cancer blocks the duodenum.

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Stent insertion

There are two ways in which it may be possible to relieve jaundice without a surgical operation. These use the ERCP or PTC procedures described below.

The ERCP method involves the insertion of a tube, called a stent into the blocked bile duct. The stent is about as thick as a ball-point pen refill and about 5–10cm long (two to four inches). The stent clears a passage through the bile duct to allow the bile to drain away. The preparation and procedure is the same as for ERCP described above. By looking at the x-ray image the doctor will be able to see the narrowing in the bile duct. The narrowing can be stretched using dilators (small inflatable balloons), and the stent can then be inserted through the endoscope to enable the bile to drain.

The tube usually needs to be replaced every three to four months to prevent it becoming blocked. If the tube does block, recurrent high temperatures and/or return of the jaundice will occur. It is important to tell your specialist about these symptoms as early as possible. Antibiotic treatment may be needed and your specialist may advise that the stent is exchanged for a new one. This procedure can be done relatively easily for most people.

During the PTC method, the procedure and the preparation you will need is as described in the section about PTC. A temporary wire is passed to the area of blockage and the stent is guided along the wire. Sometimes a drainage tube (catheter) is left in the bile duct. One end of the catheter is in the bile duct and the other lies outside the body connected to a bag, which collects the bile. This is to help with the insertion of the stent or, sometimes, to enable x-rays to be taken to check the position of the stent after it has been put in place. It is usually left in for a few days. Once the catheter is removed the hole heals over within two days. You will be given antibiotics before and after the procedure to help prevent any infection. It is likely that you will stay in hospital for a few days.

Sometimes, if the bile duct cannot be opened easily from the small intestine during ERCP, a combination of ERCP and PTC may be used.

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Other treatments

Radiotherapy

Radiotherapy is occasionally used to treat bile duct cancer. Radiotherapy treats cancer by using high-energy x-rays to destroy cancer cells while doing as little harm as possible to normal cells. It may be given either externally from a radiotherapy machine, or internally by placing radioactive material close to the tumour.

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy is the use of anti-cancer (cytotoxic) drugs to destroy the cancer cells. They work by disrupting the growth of cancer cells. Occasionally, chemotherapy may be given in combination with radiotherapy for cancers that cannot be removed surgically. Researchers are still looking into how effective chemotherapy is for the treatment of bile duct cancer.

Photodynamic therapy (PDT)

PDT uses a combination of laser light of a specific wavelength and a light-sensitive drug to destroy cancer cells. In bile duct cancer it is used to help relieve symptoms.

The light-sensitive drug (a photosensitising agent) is injected into a vein. It circulates in the bloodstream and enters cells throughout the body. The drug enters more cancer cells than healthy cells. It does not do anything until it is exposed to laser light of a particular wavelength. When a laser is shone on to the cancer, the drug becomes active and destroys the cancer cells.

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Clinical trials

Research into treatments for bile duct cancer is ongoing and advances are being made. Cancer doctors use clinical trials to assess new treatments.

You may be asked to take part in a clinical trial. Your doctor must discuss the treatment with you so that you have a full understanding of the trial and what it means to take part.

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Your feelings

During your diagnosis and treatment you are likely to experience a number of different emotions, from shock and disbelief to fear and anger. At times these emotions can be overwhelming and hard to control. It is quite natural, and important, to be able to express them. Everyone has their own ways of coping with difficult situations; some people find it helpful to talk to friends or family, while others prefer to seek help from people outside their situation. Others prefer to keep their feelings to themselves. There is no right or wrong way to cope, but help is available if you need it.

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References

This section has been compiled using information from a number of reliable sources including:

• Oxford Textbook of Oncology (2nd edition). Souhami et al. Oxford University Press, 2002.
• Gastrointestinal Oncology: Principles and Practice. Kelsen et al. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2002.
• Cancer and Its Management (4th edition). Souhami and Tobias. Oxford Blackwell Scientific Publications, 2003.

For further references, please see the general bibliography.